Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state.
In response, the government initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms, including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of the examination system. In 1900 anti-foreign " Boxers" killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries in retaliation, the foreign powers invaded China and imposed a punitive Boxer Indemnity. The ambitious Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 proposed fundamental change, but the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) turned it back in a coup. Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 led to loss of suzerainty over Korea and cession of Taiwan to Japan. The Tongzhi Restoration in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the Self-Strengthening Movement. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign " unequal treaties", granting them trading privileges, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under their control. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to fiscal crisis. After his death, the dynasty faced foreign intrusion, internal revolts, population growth, economic disruption, official corruption, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindsets. He led Ten Great Campaigns that extended Qing control into Inner Asia and personally supervised Confucian cultural projects. The height of Qing glory and power was reached in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796). The dynasty also adapted the ideals of the tributary system in asserting superiority over peripheral countries such as Korea and Vietnam, while extending control over Tibet, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. The Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722) consolidated control, maintained the Manchu identity, relished the role of a Confucian ruler, and patronized Buddhism (including Tibetan Buddhism). Resistance from Ming loyalists in the south and the Revolt of the Three Feudatories delayed the complete conquest until 1683. As Ming control disintegrated, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng captured the Ming capital Beijing in 1644 and founded the short-lived Shun dynasty, but the Ming general Wu Sangui opened the Shanhai Pass to the armies of the Qing regent Prince Dorgon, who defeated the rebels, seized the capital, and took over the government. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty "Great Qing" and elevated the realm to an empire in 1636. He unified other Jurchen clans to create a new Manchu ethnic identity and formally founded the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 and openly renounced the Ming overlordship with the Seven Grievances. Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power, Nurhaci, leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens and House of Aisin-Gioro, began organizing " Banners" in the early 17th century, which were military-social units that included Manchu, Han, and Mongol elements.
With 419,264,000 citizens in 1907, it was the most populous country in the world at the time. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the history of China and in 1790 the fourth-largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. The multiethnic Qing dynasty assembled the territorial base for modern China. In Chinese historiography, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The dynasty lasted until 1912 when it was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. Within decades the Qing had consolidated its control over the whole of China proper and Taiwan, and by the mid-18th century it had expanded its rule into Inner Asia. The dynasty was officially proclaimed in 1636 in Mukden (modern-day Shenyang), and following the Battle of Shanhai Pass it seized control of Beijing in 1644, which is traditionally considered the start of the dynasty. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by a Tungusic-speaking ethnic group who became known as the Manchus. The Qing dynasty ( English: / tʃ ɪ ŋ/ ching), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history.
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